This painting by Sidney King depicts Virginia in 1619 as a Dutch frigate docks at Point Comfort bringing 20 African slaves to be traded to the settlers for food. (AP Photo)

Bibliography: The Winding Path Toward Equity

1493-1495: Clark, James C. “How Columbus Created Slave Trade That Change World’s Economy.” The Orlando Sentinel. 17 May 1992. https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1992-05-17-9205160196-story.html

1513-1887: “Native tribes have lost 99% of their land in the United States.” 28 Oct. 2021. https://www.science.org/content/article/native-tribes-have-lost-99-their-land-united-states

1562: “Who was John Hawkins?” Royal Museums Greenwich. https://www.rmg.co.uk/stories/topics/john-hawkins-admiral-privateer-slave-trader

1619: Austin, Beth. “1619: Virginia’s First Africans.” Hampton History Museum. Dec. 2019. https://hampton.gov/DocumentCenter/View/24075/1619-Virginias-First-Africans?bidId=

1637: “The Middle Passage.” Boston African American National Historic Site. U.S. National Park Service. https://www.nps.gov/articles/the-middle-passage.htm

1641: “Massachusetts Body of Liberties (1641).” Massachusetts General Court. Learning for Justice: A Project of the Southern Poverty Law Center. https://www.learningforjustice.org/classroom-resources/texts/hard-history/massachusetts-body-of-liberties

1705: General Assembly. “An Act Concerning Servants and Slaves” (1705).” Encyclopedia Virginia. Virginia Humanities. 1 Jun. 2021. https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/an-act-concerning-servants-and-slaves-1705/

1734: Keane, David. Caste-based Discrimination in International Human Rights Law. Routledge. p. 89. 2007. ISBN 978-1-317-16951-2.

1758: Charmantier, Isabelle. “Linnaeus and Race.” The Linnean Society of London. 3 Sept. 2020. https://www.linnean.org/learning/who-was-linnaeus/linnaeus-and-race

1776: Zagarri, Rosemarie. “Slavery in Colonial British North America.” The Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media at George Mason University. TeachingHistory.org. https://teachinghistory.org/history-content/ask-a-historian/25577

1782: “Timeline: Harvard Medical School History.” Perspectives of Change, The story of civil rights, diversity, inclusion and access to education at HMS and HSDM. https://perspectivesofchange.hms.harvard.edu/node/2

1783: “Massachusetts Constitution and the Abolition of Slavery.” Commonwealth of Massachusetts. https://www.mass.gov/guides/massachusetts-constitution-and-the-abolition-of-slavery

1785: “Query XIV.” American Studies Program at the University of Virginia. 1 Sept. 2009. https://xroads.virginia.edu/~Hyper/JEFFERSON/ch14.html

1790: “Nationality Act of 1790.” Immigration History: A Project of the Immigration and Ethnic History Society. The University of Texas at Austin Department of History. 2019. https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1790-nationality-act/

1795: Gould, Stephen Jay. “The Geometer of Race.” 1 Nov. 1994.  https://www.discovermagazine.com/mind/the-geometer-of-race

1803: “Ban on ‘Importation’ of ‘Any Negro, Mulatto, or other Person of Colour’ (1803) (Effective 1808).” Immigration History: A Project of the Immigration and Ethnic History Society. The University of Texas at Austin Department of History. 2019. https://immigrationhistory.org/item/1803-ban-on-importation-of-any-negro-mulatto-or-other-person-of-colour-effective-1808/

1811: “A Narrative History of Mass General.” Russell Museum, Massachusetts General Hospital. https://www.massgeneral.org/museum/history

1830: “May 28, 1830 CE: Indian Removal Act.” Resource Library, National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/may28/indian-removal-act/

1832: “Boston Lying-In Hospital.” Guide to the Records, 1855–1983 (Bulk 1921–1966)., Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine. Center for the History of Medicine. https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w61w3pdw

1837: Green, Bryan. “America’s First Black Physician Sought to Heal a Nation’s Persistent Illness.” Race in America. Smithsonian Magazine. 26 Feb. 2021. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/james-mccune-smith-america-first-black-physician-180977110/

1847: Wheaton, Nathalie. “From the Rush Archives: David Jones Peck, MD (Part 1 of 4).” Rush University Medical Center Library. 1 Feb. 2021. https://rushu.libguides.com/blog/From-the-Rush-Archives-David-Jones-Peck-MD-Part-1-of-4

1850: Gewertz, Ken. “Against all odds.” The Harvard Gazette. 18 Nov. 2004. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2004/11/against-all-odds/

1850-1871: “African American Trailblazers at Harvard Medical School.” Perspectives of Change, The story of civil rights, diversity, inclusion and access to education at HMS and HSDM. https://perspectivesofchange.hms.harvard.edu/node/15

1851: “Diseases and Peculiarities of the Negro Race.” De Bow’s Review, Southern and Western States, Volume XI. AMS Press, Inc. New Orleans, 1851, New York, 1967. (Africans in America, PBS Online.) https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part4/4h3106t.html

1857: “Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857).” Legal Information Institute, Cornell Law School. Nov. 2020. https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/dred_scott_v_sandford_(1857)

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1863: “The Emancipation Proclamation.” U.S. National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation

1864: “Rebecca Lee Crumpler, Physician born.” African American Registry. https://aaregistry.org/story/rebecca-crumpler-born/

1865: Greene, Jamal and McAward, Jennifer Mason. “The Thirteenth Amendment.” Interactive Constitution, National Constitution Center. https://constitutioncenter.org/interactive-constitution/interpretation/amendment-xiii/interps/137

1865-1965: “Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II, by Douglas A. Blackmon (Doubleday).” The Pulitzer Prizes (Online.) 2009. https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/douglas-blackmon

1895: “History.” National Medical Association. https://www.nmanet.org/page/History

1896: “Plessy v. Ferguson (Jim Crow Laws): Topics in Chronicling America.” Library of Congress. https://guides.loc.gov/chronicling-america-plessy-ferguson

1899: DuBois, W.E.B. The Philadelphia Negro. New York: Cosimo, 2010.

1900: Marcus, Carl, MSLIS, AHIP. The Hospital on the Hill: A History of Faulkner Hospital. 2015. https://www.brighamandwomensfaulkner.org/assets/faulkner/about-bwfh/documents/history-faulkner-hospital.pdf

1910: Duffy TP. “The Flexner Report–100 years later.” Yale J Biol Med. 2011;84(3):269-276. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3178858/

1913: “History and Milestones.” Brigham and Women’s Hospital Department of Surgery Webpage. https://www.brighamandwomens.org/surgery/history-and-milestones

1914: Harvard Property Information Resource Center. https://harvardplanning.emuseum.com/sites/1733/robert-breck-brigham-hospital

1934: “Historical Shift from Explicit to Implicit Policies Affecting Housing Segregation in Eastern Massachusetts.” The Fair Housing Center of Greater Boston. https://www.bostonfairhousing.org/timeline/1934-FHA.html

1939: “African American Physicians & Organized Medicine: Acknowledging our Painful Legacy.” The Institute for Ethics at the American Medical Association. 2008. https://www.ama-assn.org/sites/ama-assn.org/files/corp/media-browser/public/ama-history/african-american-physicians1.pdf

1942-1946: “Japanese-American Internment During World War II.” U.S. National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/education/lessons/japanese-relocation#background

1944: Blakemore, Erin. “How the GI Bill’s Promise Was Denied to a Million Black WWII Veterans.” 21 Jun 2019. https://www.history.com/news/gi-bill-black-wwii-veterans-benefits

1949: Buckley, M.R.F. “Portrait of a Pioneer.” News & Research. Harvard Medical School. 13 Sept. 2019. https://hms.harvard.edu/news/portrait-pioneer

1954: “With All Deliberate Speed.” Separate is Not Equal: Brown v. Board of Education. Smithsonian National Museum of American History. https://americanhistory.si.edu/brown/history/6-legacy/deliberate-speed.html

1957: “Congress and the Voting Rights Act of 1965.” U.S. National Archives. https://www.archives.gov/legislative/features/voting-rights-1965

1964: “Legal Highlight: The Civil Rights Act of 1964.” Office of the Assistant Secretary for Administration & Management. U.S. Department of Labor. https://www.dol.gov/agencies/oasam/civil-rights-center/statutes/civil-rights-act-of-1964

1965: Duff-Brown, Beth. “Desegregating hospitals: How Medicare’s architect forced hospitals to admit Black people.” Stanford Medicine. https://stanmed.stanford.edu/2021issue1/medicare-architect-forced-hospital-desegregation.html

1966: “BWH Milestones: 1980 and earlier.” Brigham and Women’s Hospital. https://www.brighamandwomens.org/about-bwh/bwh-milestones

1968: “Housing Discrimination Under the Fair Housing Act.” U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development.  https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/fair_housing_equal_opp/fair_housing_act_overview

1980: “BWH Milestones: 1980 and earlier.” Brigham and Women’s Hospital. https://www.brighamandwomens.org/about-bwh/bwh-milestones

1985: “Report of the Secretary’s Task Force on Black and Minority Health: The Heckler Report.” Perspectives of Change, The story of civil rights, diversity, inclusion and access to education at HMS and HSDM. https://perspectivesofchange.hms.harvard.edu/node/163

1996: “Confronting Racial Disparities in C-Suite Health Care Leadership.” NEJM Catalyst. 17 Dec. 2021. https://catalyst.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/CAT.21.0449

1998: “BWH Milestones: 1990s.” Brigham and Women’s Hospital. https://www.brighamandwomens.org/about-bwh/bwh-milestones

2003: Chou, Vivian. “How Science and Genetics are Reshaping the Race Debate of the 21st Century.” Science in the News. Harvard University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. 17 Apr. 2017. https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2017/science-genetics-reshaping-race-debate-21st-century/

2008: “The history of African Americans and organized medicine.” AMA History. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/about/ama-history/history-african-americans-and-organized-medicine

2010: “Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act.” Perspectives of Change, The story of civil rights, diversity, inclusion and access to education at HMS and HSDM. https://perspectivesofchange.hms.harvard.edu/node/151

2020: Brown, Deneen L. “‘It was a modern-day lynching’: Violent deaths reflect a brutal American legacy.” History & Culture, Race in America. National Geographic. 3 Jun 2020. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/history-of-lynching-violent-deaths-reflect-brutal-american-legacy

2021: “Mass General Brigham Names Robert S.D. Higgins President of Brigham and Women’s Hospital.” Press Releases. Brigham and Women’s Hospital. 19 Aug. 2021. https://www.brighamandwomens.org/about-bwh/newsroom/press-releases-detail?id=3981

 

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